Intelligence Defined
Generally speaking, intelligence is defined as the capability to learn and adapt to a certain environment. However, numerous definitions and ideas have been proposed throughout time by experts who have studied it. To begin with, intelligence is derived from the word intelligere – a Latin verb that means “to pick out” or to discern. Another form of this term is intellectus which became a technical term for “understanding” during medieval times. Early philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and many others have rejected this idea and found it absurd and thus, the word “intelligence” has become less popular in English language philosophy since then. Later on however, the term has been studied once again in a more psychometric approach.
On the 13th of December 1994, 52 researchers issued a public statement called “Mainstream Science on Intelligence”. This statement explained that intelligence is a very general ability that comprise specific abilities such as to reason, to find solutions, to comprehend complex ideas and many more. In 1995 another large group of people called Task Force (created by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association) issued a report known as “Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns” . This report stated that each individual differs from one another in terms of adapting to the environment and grasping complex ideas. These differences are substantial and are never entirely consistent. A person’s intellectual performance may also vary depending on the occasion.
Aside from the accounts above, individual researchers have also made their own definitions of intelligence. According to Wikipedia, Albert Binet, French psychologist and inventor of the very first intelligence test (known as the Binet test), simply defined it in a single word – judgement. In other words, Binet’s definition is that Intelligence would depend on one’s good and practical sense in adapting to certain circumstances. American psychologist David Wechsler, developer of the intelligence scales, laid out his own definition in terms of an individual’s capacity to act with a purpose, to analyze rationally, and to deal effectively on his/her surroundings. In a different light, Lloyd Humphreys defined intelligence as a process of acquiring, having stock knowledge, retrieving, fusing, comparing, and using the newly-found skills. Rather than giving a definition, a famous American psychologist from Harvard, Howard Gardner, instead related intelligence to problem solving. He stated that in order to improve an individual’s intellectual competence, one must take on problems, form an effective product, and create new problems thus, creating a new foundation to acquire more knowledge. Another well-known American psychologist like Howard Gardner who goes by the name of Robert Jeffrey Sternberg defined intelligence as a behaviour rather than an ability. He stated that this human behaviour is based on one’s will to achieve his/her goals. Next is Linda Gottfredson who simply designated intelligence as our capability to handle complexity in life. Last but not the least is Reuven Feurstein who stated intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation." which can be found on his theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability.
Regarding theories, a number of theories and models have been proposed to define Intelligence in terms of a much more complex and larger picture. One of these theories and probably my favourite is Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence. In this model, Gardner divides intelligence into a variety of abilities that are weakly correlated to each other rather than just a single general ability.
The list of intelligence originally contained 7 types. The first one is the Visual/Spatial intelligence which deals with one’s capability to visualize things. People who fall under this type are usually engineers, artists, and architects who are adept at interpreting maps, charts, diagrams, and other kinds of visual material well. The next one is the Verbal/Linguistic intelligence. Individuals who can manipulate words well either in writing or speaking belong this type. Other skills that qualify one on this type are being skilled at debating, at writing stories, and at explaining. Next is the nerdy Logical-Mathematical intelligence which relates to an individual’s competency to reason out, to recognize patterns, and to logically analyze problems especially ones that deal with numbers and relationships. Athletes do also have their own type of intelligence – the Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. People who are classified to this type are equipped with good body movements, physical control, and hand-eye coordination paired up with great dexterity. The next type of intelligence is the Musical-Rhythmic intelligence which is made especially for those who greatly appreciate the art of music. This type deals with the skill to analyze musical patterns, rhythms, and sounds. Politicians and psychologists usually belong to the next type – Interpersonal intelligence. This type relates to one’s skill to understand and interact with other people. On the other hand, philosophers, theorists, and scientists fall under the contradicting type - Intrapersonal intelligence. Individuals who can unleash much more of their potential when alone and are good at self-reflection such as the 3 professions I mentioned are classified here. Later on Gardner included an eight type – the Naturalistic intelligence for nature-lovers such as botanists and zoologists. Anyone who is highly aware of the changes of the environment also qualifies to this type. Recently, an additional type was proposed. The Existential intelligence focuses on a person’s aptitude to contemplate such unusual phenomena. However Gardner disliked the idea of having “spiritual intelligence” and thus, this type has yet to be confirmed official. All in all, there are 9 types in Gardner’s model.
Another well-known model in identifying and expounding intelligence is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory or simply known as the CHC theory. This theory is actually a fusion of 2 older theories – Cattell and Horn’s Gf-Gc theory and Carroll’s Three-Stratum theory. The CHC theory was proposed by Carroll after expanding the Gf-Gc theory through factor analysis. This model was further elaborated by McGrew on 1997 and later revised again with the help of Flanagan back on 1998.
The CHC theory or model contains 10 broad abilities with 70 narrower abilities below. The first broad ability is Fluid intelligence or in other words, the ability to reason out and form concepts. The next one is the Crystallized intelligence which refers to acquiring knowledge and being able to share it with others through any means of communication. Similar to the Logical-Mathematical intelligence, Quantitative reasoning relates to numbers and relationships. Self-explanatorily, the Reading and Writing ability is all about comprehensive reading and writing skills. The next ability is the Short-Term Memory which is the potentiality to hold on to information immediately and use it within such a short matter of time. Another ability is the Visual Processing ability which bears great resemblance to Gardner’s proposed Visual-Spatial Intelligence both dealing with visual presentations. While this ability deals with the use of one’s eye, the Auditory Processing on the other hand focuses on using one’s ears well. Auditory Processing refers to the skill of an individual to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate speech sounds even at the most distorted situations. The next proposed ability is Processing Speed. This one refers to the capacity of an individual to perform such tasks and maintain focus despite under pressure on a certain situation. Lastly, the Decision/Reaction Time/Speed reflects to the aptitude to react to stimuli at a very short span of time. In comparison with other well-known theories, The CHC theory is the most comprehensive and empirically supported psychometric theory of the structure of cognitive and academic abilities.
The famous Robert Sternberg also proposed a theory and model of intelligence of his own – the Triarchic theory of Intelligence. This theory has been groundbreaking itself among researchers for being one of the first theories to take a cognitive approach rather than the usual psychometric one. Sternberg proposes that human intelligence refers to how well an individual deals with the changes in his/her surroundings throughout his/her own lifespan.
His theory has been cut into 3 major subtheories. The first one is the Componential/Analytical Subtheory which relates to analytical giftedness. This is the skill to take apart problems, to think outside the box, and finally to make surprising solutions. However human beings that specialize in this type are usually not creative. For instance, one may have excellent grades by having perfect scores in tests but that person may still have trouble graduating for not being adept enough to formulate new ideas. The next stage of Sternberg’s theory – the Experential/Creative Subtheory is divided into 2 parts in terms of experience – Novel and Automation. A novel situation is one wherein an individual doesn’t have an experience with. Thus he/she has to be adept enough to find a new solution which a majority wouldn’t easily notice. An automated situation on the other hand has been performed multiple of times and has been done from time to time again with great ease through redundant solutions. According to Sternberg, the problem of this stage is that if one individual is adept on one of these 2 parts then it is unlikely that he/she is also skilled on the other. The last subtheory is the Practical/Contextual Subtheory which is broken down into 3 parts: Adaptation, Shaping, and Selection. This subtheory is also called as an individual’s “street smarts”. Adaptation is one’s intelligence or skill to adjust to his/her surroundings the same way a person adjusts to a rainy weather by using an umbrella and wearing a jacket. Shaping on the contrary is when one changes his/her surroundings instead rather than himself/herself to make the needed adjustment. One situation is when a teacher invokes a new rule of raising one’s hand to be able to speak thus, reducing the noise level a lot. Lastly, Selection is when one simply finds and chooses a new and better alternate environment to meet up with his/her own goals and needs. A good example is when a family goes abroad to another country to experience a better life. Unlike the second subtheory, Sternberg states that an individual may be skilled in all 3 parts of the third subtheory.
To summarize, intelligence has been defined in numerous definitions by many especially by those who have spent quite an amount of time in their lives for that purpose. Furthermore, theories and models about intelligence have been proposed to define and elaborate specific types of intelligence rather than to define intelligence as a whole. In my own book, I define intelligence as the capability of an individual to acquire new knowledge and have the versatility to use that knowledge and other resources he/she has such as his/her own God-given talents in order to adapt to various situations.
